History status of Tibet

By China Tibet Informaiton Center

China is a unified multinational country. Tibet has since the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) been an inseparable part of China. Prior to the common era, the ancestors of the Tibetan people had contacts with the Han people living in the Central Plains of China. During the long years leading up to the seventh century the many tribes scattered on the Tibet Plateau gradually came together to form the Tibetan ethnic group.

Tubo Kingdom. Early in the seventh century China move into a new stage of its history. The Tang Dynasty (618-907) was a powerful and politically united regime that initially established order over the shifting and chaotic situation that had prevailed for more than 300 years in China. At the same time, the great Tibetan leader Songtsan Gambo brought together more than 10 separate tribes, an event commonly seen as marking the establishment of the Tubo Kingdom, making his capital in present-day Lhasa. songtsan Gambo had good relations with the Tang court and benefitted from the importation of Tang technologies (advanced for the day), and was influenced by Tang culture and politics. He twice sent ministers to the Tang Dynasty court requesting a member of the imperial family be given him in marriage and in 641 he married Princess Wencheng, a member of Emperor Taizong's family. Introduced into Tibet during this time were Chinese technologies for wine-making, grinding, and paper and ink making. Sons of the Tibetan aristocracy were and ink making. Sons of the Tibetan aristocracy were sent to the Tang capital Chang'an (present-day Xi'an) to study. Literati from the Tang court went to the Tibetan capital to handle communications with the emperor. During the reign of Songtsan Gambo political, economic and cultural relations between Tang and Tubo were friendly. Laudatory titles given King Songtsan Gambo by Emperor Gaozong include Commandant-escort, Commandery Prince of the Western Sea and Companion Prince.
This pattern of friendly relations established during the reign of Songtsan Gambo was carried on during the next two hundred years. In 710 the Tang Princess Jincheng was sent to Tibet to marry the Tubo King Tride Tsugtsen, accompanied by several tens of thousands of pieces of embroidered satin brocade, a variety of technical writings and various other useful items. Princess Jincheng later gave money to support Buddhist monks from Yutian (now in modern Xinjiang) and elsewhere on their trips to Tibet to build monasteries and translate sutras. She also requested that Chinese classical works such as The Book of Songs With Annotation by Mao Heng, The Book of Rites, Zuo Qiuming's Chronicles, and Xiao 'Tong's Literary Selections be sent to her from the Tang court.

In 821 King Chiri Pachen of Tibet three times sent envoys to Chang'an to discuss forming an alliance with the Tang Empire. Emperor Muzong ordered his prime minister to effect the alliance in a grand ceremony held in the western suburbs of the capital. The following year high-ranking representatives of the Tang court including Liu Yuanding were dispatched to Tibet to participate in a similar ceremony marking the alliance held in the eastern suburbs of Lhasa. representatives of the Tibetan king included his chief ministers.

This all occurred during the first and second years (822 and 823) of the Changqing reign of the Tang Dynasty, and accordingly has been called the "Changqing Alliance" by historians. The two parties agreed to "amity as though they were of one family" and to "treat their sacrificial alters as though they were one." An account of the alliance is recorded on three tablets, and the "Tang-Tubo Alliance Tablet," one of the three, still stands before the Jokhang Monastery in Lhasa.
Division Within Tibet. Beginning around 842 the Tubo Kingdom broke up. Rival groups of misters and members of the royal family engaged in internecine struggle. Power was educed to the local level. This state of affairs continued for more than 400 years.

Tibet Became a Part of China in the Mid-13th Century. Early in the 13th century, the leader of the Mongolian people Genghis Khan established a Mongol Khanate north of China. In 1247 the Mongol Prince Godan invited Pandit Gonggar Gyancain, an eminent monk with the Sagya Sect, to a meeting in Liangzhou (modern Wuwei in Gansu Province). He offered the submission of Tibet to the Mongol Khanate and the acceptance of a defined local administrative system and in return the Sagya were given political power in Tibet. In 1271 the Mongolain conquerors took Yuan as the name of their dynasty. In 1279 following their defeat of the Song they completed their unification of all of China. The newly united Central Government continued control over Tibet, including it as an administrative unit directly governed by the Chinese Yuan Dynasty Central Government.

In 1260, when Kublai Khan (1215-1294) ascended the throne, he conferred the title State Tutor on Gonggar Gyaincain's nephew Pagba, Prince of the Dharma of the Sagya order. In 1264 Kublai Khan established toe Zongzhi (General) Council in charge of Buddhist affairs with Pagba at its head. Dit was renamed Xuanzheng (Political) Council. Under it was the Pacification Commission Chief Military Command responsible for handling military and government affairs over a large part of what is now Tibet. Below this level were Wan Hu Fu (10,000 household office) and Qian Hu Fu (1,000 household office) in charge of civil administration. In 1265 Kublai Khan honored Pagba with the titles of Great Treasure Prince of Dharma and Imperial Tutor. Following Pagba's recommendations he appointed an official for the overall management of Tibetan affairs and heads for d13 Wan Hu Fu. In d1268, 1287 and 1334 the Yuan Central Government sent officials to check on the Tibetan population. Fifteen staging posts were set up linking communications between Tibet and the Yuan capital Dadu (present-day Beijing). in addition, the Ula conscript labor system was established and promoted in Tibet.

Subsequent Central Governments' Jurisdiction over Tibet. Since Tibet formally came under the control of the Yuan court in mid-13th century, China has seen changes of dynasty and many changeovers in the central authority, but Tibet has always remained under the Chinese Central Government's jurisdiction. During the mid-14th century the Sagya government gradually declined. The Pagmo Gagyu Sect headed by Qamqoi Gyaincain came to power, following the system of temporal and religious administration. Yuan rulers accepted the fact and gave Qamqoi Gyaincaion the title Grand Minister of Education. With the overthrow of the Yuan and the founding of the Ming Dynasty in 1368, a policy whereby titles were widely conferred was put into effect. The head of any religious sects who could claim local political power was given an honorary title such as "Prince," "Prince of Dharma" or "Abhisecana State Tutor" ("A bhisecana" being a Buddhist ceremony wherein a student's initiation is acknowledged by his teacher sprinkling water on his head). Succession to the throne was subject to approval by the Chinese emperor who would dispatch officials to deliver certificate acknowledging the title. During this time, the Gelug (Yellow) Sect, which recognized two great Living Buddhas, the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama, was gaining in prominence. The 3rd Dalai Lama Soinam Gyatso paid tributes to the Ming court and in return was given the title of DorjeChang Vajra Holder. The Ming government followed Yuan Dynasty practices regards Tibet. It esablished the U-Tsang and the Gargain garrison command headquarters and the Olisi Military-Civil Governor's Office respectively to manage the military and political affairs in the Central and Western Tibet, Qamdo and Ngari. During this time, the Tibetan government established the dzongpon system in parts of Tibet. The administrative heads of each dzong (an administrative unit about the size of a county) were recognized by the Ming court as dzongpon (county magistrate).
In 1644, the Qing Dynasty overthrew the Ming. The new central power increased control over, bringing increased systemization and an expanded legal framework. Qing Emperor Shunhi on several occasions invited the 5th Dalai Lama to beijing, and in 1652 he did so. In 1653 the emperor gave the Dalai Lama a gold-leaf certificate of appointment and gold seal of authority formally recognizing his status as the Dalai Lama. In 1713 Emperor Kangxi similarly honored the 5th Panchen lama Lobsang Yeshe formally recognizing him as Panchen Erdeni. Beginning around this time the Dalai Lama based in Lhasa ruled over the greater part of Tibet and the Panchen Lama based in Xigaze ruled over the remainder. In 1727 the Qing court appointed a resident Commissioner (Amban) as a Central Government representative in Tibet to oversee Tibet's administrative affairs. Tibet's borders with Sichuan, Yunnan and Qinghai were formally surveyed and fixed at this time. In 1721 the Qinghai were formally surveyed and fixed at this time. In 1721 the Qing Central Government established the Galoon (Ministers of Council) system in Tibet. In 1750 the Tibetan administrative system was reformulated and the "commandery prince" system was eliminated. The Tibetan local government (Gaxag) was founded with the Amban and the Dalai Lama together handling Tibetan affairs. In 1793 the Qing government issued the famous 29-Article Ordinance for the More Efficient Governing of Tibet, dealing with the authority of the Amban, the reincarnation of the Dalai Lama, the Panchen Lama and other important Living Buddhas, frontier defence, relations with the outside world, finance and tax revenues, minting and administration of currency, and the support and administration of monasteries. The basic principles formulated in the 29Article Ordinance remained the standard for the administrative and legal systems in Tibet for more than the next hundred years.

The Revolution of 1911 which toppled the Qing Dynasty led to the founding of the Republic of China, a multi-ethnic, unified country where peoples of the Han, Manchu, Mongolian, Hui, Tibetan and other ethnic groups lived harmoniously. The Central Government continued jurisdiction over Tibet as it had in the three previous dynasties. In 1912 the Bureau for the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs (in 1914 renamed the Council for the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs)was set up chiefly to manage Tibetan affairs and a resident official dispatched to Tibet. The Nanjing Nationalist Government came to power in 1927 and two years later it set up the Commission for the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs to oversee administration of the areas inhabited by Tibetans, Mongolians and other ethnic minorities. In 1940 the Nationalist government set up the Lhasa Office of the Commission for the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs in Lhasa to function as the Central Government's standing body in Tibet. The Tibetan government frequently sent officials to participate in the Republic's National Congress. The Republic suffered from incessant foreign aggression and frequent internal disturbances. But despite the fragility of the Central Government the Dalai and Panchen lamas continued to accept its official recognition of their positions, receiving legal status in their political and religious roles in Tibet. The 14th Dalai Lama Dainzin Gyamco came to power in Tibet with the approval of the president of the Nationalist Government.

The founding of New Tibet. In 1949 the People's Republic of China was founded. Proceeding in cognizance of Tibet's history and present reality, the Central People's Government determined a policy of peaceful liberation. On May 23, 1951, representatives form the Central People's Government and the local government of Tibet agreed on a series of issues regarding Tibet's peaceful liberation, signing the Agreement of the central People's Government and the Local Government of Tibet on Measures for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet (known as the 17-Article Agreement). The 17-Article Agreement contains two main points. First, the Central Government demanded that the Tibetan local government actively assist the People's Liberation Army as they entered and garrisoned Tibet to strengthen national defence and resolutely drive imperialist forces out of Tibet. All of Tibet's affairs involving the outside world were to be handled by the Central Government and the Tibetan army would step by step be absorbed into the People's Liberation Army. Second, the Central People's Government would not alter Tibet's current system or the Dalai Lama's inherent status and authority. The Tibetan people's customs would be respected and their religious freedom protected. The reform of Tibetan society would be decided after consultation with Tibetan leaders. Regional autonomy for minority people would be instituted in the Tibet Autonomous Region. The 14th Dalai Lama and the 10th Panchen Erdeni separately telegraphed their acceptance of the 17-Article Agreement to Mao Zedong, Chairman of the Central People's Government, resolutely upholding the unity of the motherland's sovereignty. Other Tibetans, monastic and secular, and local Tibetan leaders expressed their firm support as well. This date marks a new page in Tibetan history.
In 1954 the 14th Dalai Lama and the 10th Panchen Erdeni went to Beijing to attend the first session of the First National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China. During this conference, the 14th Dalai Lama was elected as vice-Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, and the 10th Panchen Erdeni member of the NPC Standing Committee.

In 1956, the Preparatory Committee for the Founding of the Tibet Autonomous Region was founded with the 14th Dalai Lama as its chairman.

In March 1959, the majority of the Galoon officials in the Tibetan local government joined with the reactionary clique of the upper social strata to launch an armed rebellion with the aim of splitting the country, preserving the feudal serf system and opposing democratic reform. The Central People's Government ordered the PLA in Tibet resolutely to quell the rebellion. On March 28 of the same year, Xhou Enlai, Premier of the State Council of the Central People's Government, released order dissolving the Tibetan local government, and declaring that the functions and authority of the Tibetan local government would be vested in the preparatory Committee for the Founding of the Tibet Autonomous Region. At this same time, the Central People's Government, responding to the will of the Tibetan people, implemented democratic reform and abolished the feudal serf system in Tibet. As a result, the million serfs and slaves in Tibet stood up and came into their own, instead of being treated as the private property of serf-owners that could be traded, transferred or used to pay off a debt in kind or by labor. After a few years of steady development, the Tibet autonomous Region was formally founded in September 1965.

The Tibetans first settled along the middle reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River in Tibet. Evidence of the new and old stone age culture was found in archaeological excavations at Nyalam, Nagqu, Nyingchi and Qamdo. According to ancient historical documents, members of the earliest clans formed tribes known as Bos in the Shannan area. In the 6th century, the chief of the Yarlung tribe in the area became leader of the local tribal alliance and declared himself the Zambo (king). This marked the beginning of Tibetan slavery society and its direct contacts with the Han people and other ethnic groups and tribes in northwest China.

At the beginning of the 7th century, King Songzan Gambo began to rule the whole of Tibet and made Losha (today's Lhasa) the capital. He designated official posts, defined military and administrative areas, created the Tibetan script, formulated laws and unified weights and measures, thus establishing the slavery kingdom known as Bo, which was called Tubo in Chinese historical documents.

After the Tubo regime was established, the Tibetans increased their political, economic and cultural exchanges with the Han and other ethnic groups in China. The Kingdom of Tibet began to have frequent contacts with the Tang Dynasty (618-907) and the Tibetan and Han peoples got on well with each other. In 641, King Songzan Gambo married Princess Wen Cheng of the Tang Dynasty. In 710, King Chide Zuzain married another Tang princess, Jin Cheng. The two princesses brought with them the culture and advanced production techniques of Central China to Tibet. From that time on, emissaries traveled frequently between the Tang Dynasty and Tibet. The Tibetans sent students to Changan, capital of the Tang Dynasty, and invited Tang scholars and craftsmen to Tibet. These exchanges helped promote relations between the Tibetans and other ethnic groupss in China and stimulated social development in Tibet.
From the 10th to 12th century, Tibet fell apart into several independent regimes and began to move towards serfdom. It was at this time that Buddhism was adapted to local circumstances by assimilating certain aspects of the indigenous religion, won increasing numbers of followers and gradually turned into Lamaism. Consisting of many different sects and spread across the land, Lamaism penetrated into all spheres of Tibetan life. The upper strata of the clergy often collaborated with the rich and powerful, giving rise to a feudal hierarchy combining religious and political power and controlled by the rising local forces.

The Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) founded by the Mongols in the 13th century brought the divided Tibet under the unified rule of the central government. It set up an institution called Xuanzhengyuan (or political council) and put it in charge of the nation's Buddhist affairs and Tibet's military, governmental and religious affairs.

Phagsba, a Tibetan lama, was given the title of imperial tutor and appointed head of the council. The Yuan court also set up three government offices to govern the Tibetan areas in northwest and southwest China and Tibet itself. The central government set up 13 Wanhu offices (each governing 10,000 households) in Inner and Outer Tibet east of Ngari. It also sent officials to administer civil and military affairs, conduct census, set up courier stations and collect taxes and levies. Certificates for the ownership of manors were issued to the serf owners and documents given to local officials to define their authority. This marked the beginning of the central authorities' overall control of Tibet by appointing officials and instituting the administrative system there.

The ensuing Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) carried over the Tusi (headmen) system in the Tibetan areas in northwest and southwest China. In Tibet proper, three sect leaders and five secular princes were named. These measures ensured peace and stability in the Tibetan areas during the Yuan and Ming dynasties, and the feudal economy there developed and culture and art flourished. Tibet's contacts with other parts of the country became more frequent and extensive.

The Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), the last monarchy in China, set up a government department called Lifanyuan to administer affairs in Tibet and Mongolia. In Tibet, the Qing emperor conferred the titles of the Dalai Lama (1653) and Bainqen Erdini (1713) on two living Buddhas of the Gelugba sect of Lamaism. The Qing court began to appoint a high resident commissioner to help with local administration in 1728, and set up the Kasha as the local government in 1751. In 1793, the Qing army drove the Gurkhas invaders out of Tibet and formulated regulations concerning its administration.

The regulations specified the civil and military official appointment systems and institutions governing justice, border defense, finance, census, corvee service and foreign affairs, establishing the high commissioners' terms of reference in supervising Tibetan affairs.
In other areas inhabited by Tibetans in northwest and southwest China, the Qing court continued the Tusi (headmen) system established by the Yuan and Ming dynasties, and put them under the administration of the Xining Commissioner's office (established in 1725) and the Sichuan governor (later the Sichuan-Yunnan border affairs minister).

After the Republic of China was founded in 1911, the central government set up a special department to administer Mongolian and Tibetan affairs. In 1929, the Kuomintang government set up a commission for Mongolian and Tibetan affairs in Nanjing and established Qinghai Province. In 1939, Xikang Province was set up. The Tibetan areas in northwest and southwest China, except Tibet, were placed under the administration of Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, Xikang and Yunnan provinces respectively.

After the Chinese Communist Party was founded in 1921, its central committee clearly stated in its Agrarian Revolution Program that the feudal privileges of Tibetan princes and Lamas would be abolished. During its Long March northward to fight the Japanese invaders, the Chinese Worker and Peasant Red Army passed through Tibetan areas in Sichuan, Xikang, Yunnan, Gansu and Qinghai, where they mobilized the poor Tibetans to carry out land reform and establish democratic political power of the laboring people. Areas inhabited by Tibetans were liberated one after another after the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949. Tibet proper was liberated peacefully in 1951.